トルコ

トルコ共和国（トルコきょうわこく、、）、通称トルコは、西アジアに位置するアナトリア半島（小アジア）と南ヨーロッパに位置するバルカン半島東南端の東トラキア地方を領有する共和制国家。首都はアンカラ。

アジアとヨーロッパの2つの大州にまたがる。北は黒海とマルマラ海、西と南は地中海（西はエーゲ海）に面する。陸上国境は、西でブルガリア、ギリシャと、東でジョージア、アルメニア、アゼルバイジャン、イラン、イラク、シリアと接する。

北大西洋条約機構（NATO）参加国である。

概要 トルコは古来からヨーロッパとアジアの架け橋的な立ち位置として存在し続けている大統領制の単一国家であり、現在8,500万人以上の人々が住んでいる。その殆どはトルコ人で占められており、住民の一部に数え上げられるクルド人は国内の少数民族の中で最多となっている。同国は公式には世俗国家となっているが、人口の多くはハナフィー派のムスリムとなっている。イスタンブールは最大の都市で同国経済ならびに金融の中心地となっており、アンカラは首都であると同時に2番目に大きな都市である。その他の主要都市には、イズミル、ブルサ、アンタルヤなどがある。

少なくとも後期旧石器時代には現在のトルコ地域に人間が住んでいた Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. p.24 .。ギョベクリ・テペのような重要な新石器時代の遺跡や、最初期の農業地帯の幾つかが残存する同地域には、色々な人種の古代人たちが居住していたHoward 2016, pp. 24–28: "Göbekli Tepe’s close proximity to several very early sites of grain cultivation helped lead Schmidt to the conclusion that it was the need to maintain the ritual center that first encouraged the beginnings of settled agriculture—the Neolithic Revolution"McMahon & Steadman 2012a, pp. 3–12 Matthews, Roger. "A History of the Preclassical Archaeology of Anatolia". In McMahon & Steadman (2012), pp. 34–55.McMahon, Gregory; Steadman, Sharon (2012a). "Introduction: The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia". In McMahon, Gregory; Steadman, Sharon, eds. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.001.0001. pp. 3–12 .Matthews, Roger. "A History of the Preclassical Archaeology of Anatolia". In McMahon & Steadman (2012), pp. 34–55. p. 49 。特にハッティ人は、ヒッタイト人などのアナトリアの住民に同化されていた Ahmed, Ali. "Turkey". In Leonard, Thomas M., ed. (2006). Encyclopedia of the Developing World. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203943373. . pp. 1575–1578. p. 1576: "Turkey’s diversity is derived from its central location near the world’s earliest civilizations as well as a history replete with population movements and invasions. The Hattite culture was prominent during the Bronze Age prior to 2000 BCE, but was replaced by the Indo-European Hittites who conquered Anatolia by the second millennium. Meanwhile, Turkish Thrace came to be dominated by another Indo-European group, the Thracians for whom the region is named." Steadman, Sharon. "The Early Bronze Age on the Plateau". In McMahon & Steadman (2012), pp. 229–259.　 p. 234: "By the time of the Old Assyrian Colony period in the early second millennium b.c.e . (see Michel, chapter 13 in this volume) the languages spoken on the plateau included Hattian, an indigenous Anatolian language, Hurrian (spoken in northern Syria), and Indo-European languages known as Luwian, Hittite, and Palaic" Michel, Cécile. "The Kārum Period on the Plateau". In McMahon & Steadman (2012), pp. 313–336. p. 327 Melchert, H. Craig. "Indo-Europeans". In McMahon & Steadman (2012), pp. 704–716. p. 713 Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. . p. 26。 は、アレキサンダー大王の征服に続いて文化的なギリシャ化へ移行しており、は古代ローマ時代とビザンティン帝国時代へ続いた Howard, Douglas A. (2016). The History of Turkey (2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. . p. 29: "The sudden disappearance of the Persian Empire and the conquest of virtually the entire Middle Eastern world from the Nile to the Indus by Alexander the Great caused tremendous political and cultural upheaval. ... statesmen throughout the conquered regions attempted to implement a policy of Hellenization. For indigenous elites, this amounted to the forced assimilation of native religion and culture to Greek models. It met resistance in Anatolia as elsewhere, especially from priests and others who controlled temple wealth." Ahmed, Ali. "Turkey". In Leonard (2006), pp. 1575–1578. p. 1576: "Subsequently, hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region" McMahon, Gregory; Steadman, Sharon (2012a). "Introduction: The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia". In McMahon & Steadman (2012), pp. 3–12. p. 5 McMahon 2012, p. 16 Sams, G. Kenneth. "Anatolia: The First Millennium B.C.E. in Historical Context". In McMahon & Steadman (2012), pp. 604–622. p. 617 。またセルジューク朝におけるトルコ人は11世紀にアナトリアへの移住を開始し、への過程が始まった Davison, Roderic H. (1990). Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923: The Impact of the West. The University of Texas Press. doi:10.7560/720640. . pp. 3–4: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek." Howard 2016, pp. 33–44 。 セルジューク朝の一派であったルーム・セルジューク朝は、1243年にモンゴル帝国が侵攻するまでアナトリアを統治していたが、モンゴル帝国下のアナトリアは同地域の公国により、その後崩壊することとなった Howard 2016, pp. 38–39 。

1299年以降、オスマン帝国が公国を統一し、拡大。メフメト2世は1453年にイスタンブールを征服した。セリム1世とスレイマン大帝の治世下、オスマン帝国は世界的な大国へと変貌を遂げた Howard 2016, p. 45 Somel, S.A. (2010). The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire. The A to Z Guide Series. Scarecrow Press. . p. xcvii 。1789年以降、同帝国はや改革、中央集権化を経験するが、帝国の領土はそれに反してして行った Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü. "Modern Ottoman period". In Heper & Sayarı (2012), pp. 15–25. Kayalı, Hasan. "The Young Turks and the CUP". In Heper & Sayarı (2012), pp. 26–34. pp. 26–28 Davison, Roderic H. (1990). Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923: The Impact of the West. The University of Texas Press. doi:10.7560/720640. . pp. 115–116 。

19世紀から20世紀初頭にかけて、オスマン帝国の縮小期の到来やロシア帝国におけるイスラム教徒の迫害により、バルカン半島、コーカサス、クリミア半島からトルコ地域間では大規模な範囲で人命が失われた Kaser, Karl (2011). The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History. Berlin Wien: LIT Verlag Münster. . p. 336: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former “suppressors”. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons" Fábos, Anita. "Muslim Immigration". In Gibney & Hansen (2005), pp. 434–440. p. 437: ‘Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, “only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land....Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease” (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of “Muslim migration.” Karpat, K.H. (2001). The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State. Studies in Middle Eastern history. Oxford University Press. . p. 343: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher." ... "The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries." Karpat, Kemal H. (2004). Studies on Turkish Politics and Society: Selected Articles and Essays. Leiden Boston: BRILL. . pp. 5–6: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..." Pekesen, Berna (7 March 2012). "Expulsion and Emigration of the Muslims from the Balkans". European History Online. Leibniz Institute of European History. Archived from the original on 20 February 2024. Retrieved 20 February 2024. "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey." ... "Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families.51" Biondich, Mark (2011). The Balkans: Revolution, War, and Political Violence since 1878. The United States: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199299058.001.0001. . p. 93: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans" Armour, Ian D. (2012). A History of Eastern Europe 1740-1918: Empires, Nations and Modernisation (2nd ed.). London New York: Bloomsbury Academic. . p. 213: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense." Bosma, Ulbe; Lucassen, Jan; Oostindie, Gert (2012a). "Introduction: Postcolonial Migrations and Identity Politics: Towards a Comparative Perspective". In Bosma, Lucassen & Oostindie (2012), pp. 1–22. p. 17: "In total, many millions of Turks (or, more precisely, Muslim immigrants, including some from the Caucasus) were involved in this ‘repatriation’ – sometimes more than once in a lifetime – the last stage of which may have been the immigration of seven hundred thousand Turks from Bulgaria between 1940 and 1990. Most of these immigrants settled in urban north-western Anatolia. Today between a third and a quarter of the Republic’s population are descendants of these Muslim immigrants, known as Muhacir or Göçmen" 。三人のパシャの支配下にあったオスマン帝国は1914年に第一次世界大戦へ参戦し、同帝国政府はアルメニア人、ギリシャ人、アッシリア人の臣民に対して大量虐殺を行なったTatz, Colin; Higgins, Winton (2016). The Magnitude of Genocide. ABC-CLIO. .Schaller, Dominik J.; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. . . S2CID 71515470.Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2021). The Thirty-Year Genocide - Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. .。オスマン帝国の敗北後、トルコ独立戦争はとローザンヌ条約の調印を齎した。共和制国家の設立は1923年10月29日に宣言され、初代大統領ムスタファ・ケマル・アタチュルクが開始したを模範としている。第二次世界大戦においてトルコは殆どの戦時期は中立を保っていたものの、朝鮮戦争に対しては多方で関与しており、幾つかの軍事介入は複数政党制への移行を妨げる結果となった。